Ankai Secures a 200-million Deal with Myanmar
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百度 加大、加强已出版近400种《杭州全书》的应用传播与知识转化，利用好每一项成果。
 | This is the pronunciation key for IPA transcriptions of English on Wikipedia. It provides a set of symbols to represent the pronunciation of English in Wikipedia articles, and example words that illustrate the sounds that correspond to them. Integrity must be maintained between the key and the transcriptions that link here; do not change any symbol or value without establishing consensus on the talk page first. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ? ?, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. |
On Wikipedia, the pronunciation of words is shown using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The tables below provide a key to the IPA symbols used for English pronunciations. Please note that some of these symbols are used in ways specific to Wikipedia, and may differ from their usage in dictionaries.
If IPA symbols do not display correctly in your browser, see the troubleshooting links below.
Editors should use IPA templates such as {{IPAc-en}} when adding IPA to Wikipedia articles, see Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters for guidance. These templates ensure accessibility and tooltip functionality, see the documentation page for usage instructions.
Key
If you are looking for an IPA symbol that does not appear in the pronunciation key below, see Help:IPA, which provides a more comprehensive list. For a table showing how the sounds on this page correspond to English spellings, see English orthography § Sound-to-spelling correspondences. For assistance in converting spellings to pronunciations, refer to English orthography § Spelling-to-sound correspondences.
In some cases, words given as examples for different symbols may sound the same to you. For instance, you might pronounce cot and caught, do and dew, or marry and merry the same. This typically results from dialect variation (see our articles English phonology and International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects). If so, you will likely pronounce those symbols the same in other words as well.[1] Whether this applies to all words or only in certain contexts depends on the specific sound merger.[2] The footnotes provide further explanation of these cases.
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Notes
- Words in SMALL CAPITALS are the standard lexical sets. Not all of the sets are used here. In particular, we excluded words in the lexical sets BATH and CLOTH, which may be given two transcriptions, the former either with /ɑ?/ or /?/, the latter with /?/ or /??/.
- The length mark ??? does not mean that the vowels transcribed with it are always longer than those without it. When unstressed, followed by a voiceless consonant, or in a polysyllabic word, a vowel in the former group is frequently shorter than the latter in other environments (see Clipping (phonetics) § English). /i, u/ likewise do not mean shorter versions of /i?, u?/ but represent a situation in which some speakers have /i?, u?/ and others /?, ?/ (see Happy tensing).
Dialect variation
This key represents diaphonemes, abstractions of speech sounds that accommodate General American, British Received Pronunciation (RP) and to a large extent also Australian, Canadian, Irish (including Ulster), New Zealand, Scottish, South African and Welsh English pronunciations. Therefore, not all of the distinctions shown here are relevant to a particular dialect.
- ?i? does not represent a phoneme but a variation between /i?/ and /?/ in unstressed positions. Speakers of dialects with happy tensing (Australian English, General American, modern RP) should read it as an unstressed /i?/, whereas speakers of other dialects (e.g. some Northern England English) should treat it the same as /?/. In Scotland, this vowel can be considered the same as the short allophone of /e?/, as in take. Before /?/ within the same word, another possible pronunciation is /j/ as in yet.
- Many speakers of American, Canadian, Scottish and Irish English pronounce cot /?k?t/ and caught /?k??t/ the same.[k] You may simply ignore the difference between the symbols /?/ and /??/, just as you ignore the distinction between the written vowels o and au when pronouncing them.
- Most speakers of North American English (with the exception of Eastern New England) do not distinguish between the vowels in father /'fɑ?e?r/ and bother /'b?e?r/, pronouncing the two words as rhymes. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɑ?/ and /?/.
- Speakers of some rhotic dialects, for instance in Ireland and Scotland, may not distinguish between the vowels of near /?n??r/, cure /?kj??r/ and square /?skw??r/ on the one hand and freerunning /?fri?r?n??/, Q-rating /?kju?re?t??/ and dayroom /?de?ru?m/ on the other. If you speak such a dialect, read /??r, ??r, ??r/ as /i?r, u?r, e?r/.
- In Northern Ireland, Scotland and many North American dialects the distinction between /?r/ as in courier and the aforementioned /??r/ and /u?r/ does not exist. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /?r/, /??r/ and /u?r/.
- In Northern Ireland and Scotland this merger occurs in all environments, which means that foot /?f?t/ and goose /?ɡu?s/ also have the same vowel.[l][m] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /?/ and /u?/ in all contexts.
- In North America, the /?r/ of courier and the /??r/ of cure may instead merge with /??r/ as in north or /??r/ as in nurse. No such merger is possible in the case of the sequence which we transcribe as /u?r/ as there is an implied morpheme boundary after the length mark.
- In North American dialects that do not distinguish between /?r/, /??r/ and /u?r/ there is also no distinction between the /?r/ of mirror and the aforementioned /??r/ and /i?r/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /?r/, /??r/ and /i?r/.
- In many North American dialects there is also no distinction between the vowels in merry /?m?ri/, Mary /?m??ri/ and marry /?m?ri/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /?r/, /??r/ and /?r/. Some speakers keep marry and/or merry separate from the rest, but in the General American accent all three vowels are the same and may not be distinct from /e?r/ as in dayroom /?de?ru?m/.
- In rhotic North American English there is no distinction between the vowels in nurse /?n??rs/ and letter /?l?t?r/. If you speak such a dialect, read /??r/ as /?r/. The /?r/ of hurry often joins this neutralization; if you have it in your speech, read /??r/, /?r/ and /?r/ as /?r/.
- Some speakers from Northern England do not distinguish the vowel of square /?skw??r/ and nurse /?n??rs/.[n] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /??r/ and /??r/.
- In New Zealand English, the vowels of kit /?k?t/ and focus /?fo?k?s/ have the same schwa-like quality.[o][p] If you are from New Zealand, ignore the difference between the symbols /?/ and /?/.
- In contemporary New Zealand English and some other dialects, the vowels of near /?n??r/ and square /?skw??r/ are not distinguished.[q] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /??r/ and /??r/.
- In Northern England English and some varieties of Irish and Welsh English, the vowels of foot /?f?t/ and strut /?str?t/ are not distinguished.[r] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /?/ and /?/.
- In some varieties of Scottish English and in Northern Irish English, the vowels of trap /?tr?p/ and palm /?pɑ?m/ are not distinguished.[s] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /?/ and /ɑ?/.
- In Welsh English and some other dialects, the vowels of unorthodoxy /?n???rθ?d?ksi/ and an orthodoxy /?n ???rθ?d?ksi/ are not distinguished.[t] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /?/ and /?/.
- Depending on the dialect, vowels can be subject to various mergers before /l/, so that e.g. fill /?f?l/ and feel /?fi?l/ or pull /?p?l/ and pool /?pu?l/ may not be distinguished. L-vocalization may trigger even more mergers, so that e.g. cord /?k??rd/ and called /?k??ld/ may be homophonous as /?k??d/ in non-rhotic dialects of South East England. See English-language vowel changes before historic /l/ for more information.
- In many dialects, /r/ occurs only before a vowel; if you speak such a dialect, simply ignore /r/ in the pronunciation guides where you would not pronounce it, as in cart /kɑ?rt/.
- In other dialects, /j/ (yes) cannot occur after /t, d, n/, etc., within the same syllable; if you speak such a dialect, then ignore the /j/ in transcriptions such as new /nju?/. For example, New York is transcribed /nju? ?j??rk/. For most people from England and for some New Yorkers, the /r/ in /j??rk/ is not pronounced; for most people from the United States, including some New Yorkers, the /j/ in /nju?/ is not pronounced and may be ignored. (See yod-dropping.)
On the other hand, there are some distinctions which you might make but which this key does not encode, as they are seldom reflected in the dictionaries used as sources for Wikipedia articles:
- The vowels of kit and bit, distinguished in South Africa.[u] Both of them are transcribed as /?/ in stressed syllables and as /?/ or /?/ in unstressed syllables.
- The difference between the vowels of fir, fur and fern, maintained in some Scottish and Irish English but lost elsewhere.[v] All of them are transcribed as /??r/.
- The vowels of north and force, distinguished in Scottish English, Irish English and by a minority of American speakers.[v] Both of them are transcribed as /??r/.
- The vowels of pause and paws, distinguished in Cockney and by some Estuary English speakers.[w] Both of them are transcribed as /??/ when the spelling does not contain ?r? and /??r/ or /??r/ (depending on the word) when it does.
- The vowels of manning and Manning, distinguished in some parts of the United States (see /?/ raising). Both of them are transcribed as /?/.
- The difference between the vowels of pain and pane found in some English, Welsh, and Newfoundland dialects. Both of them are transcribed as /e?/.
- The difference between the vowels of toe and tow found in some English, Welsh, and Newfoundland dialects. Both of them are transcribed as /o?/.
- The difference between the vowels of holy and wholly found in Cockney and many Estuary English speakers.[x] Both of them are transcribed as /o?/.
- Any allophonic distinctions, such as:
- The vowels of bad and lad, distinguished in many parts of Australia and Southern England. Both of them are transcribed as /?/.
- The vowels of spider and spied her, distinguished in many parts of Scotland,[y] plus many parts of North America. Both of them are transcribed as /a?/.
- The vowels of rider and writer, distinguished in most parts of Canada and many parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as /a?/.
- The vowels of powder and pouter distinguished in most parts of Canada and some parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as /a?/.
- Allophonic vowel length (including the Scottish vowel length rule), as in knife /?na?f/ vs. knives /?na?vz/. Phonemic vowel length, which exists in some dialects and involves pairs such as /?/ vs. /??r/ and /?/ vs. /??r/ is also not marked explicitly. /i/ and /u/ do not represent phonemes; see above.
- Flapping in words such as better, which we write /?b?t?r/, rather than /?b?d?r/.
- Glottalization in words such as jetlag and, in some accents, daughter, which we write /?d??tl?ɡ/ and /?d??t?r/, rather than /?d???l?ɡ/ and /?d????r/. In this system, /?/ is used only for paralanguage or in loanwords where it occurs phonemically in the original language.
- L-vocalization in words such as bottle and Alps, which we write /?b?t?l/ and /??lps/, rather than /?b?t?/ and /??wps/.
- The difference between allophones of /?/ in balance ([?]) vs. the ones in about and Russia (and, in non-rhotic dialects, better), both of which may be closer to /?/ in dialects with the foot–strut split (that is, [?]) vs. the one in button (the syllabicity of the following consonant). All are transcribed as /?/ in our system.
- The difference between the phonetic realization of English sounds (mostly vowels) in various dialects. Let's pick some grapes for Betty should be transcribed /l?ts ?p?k s?m ?ɡre?ps f?r ?b?ti/ regardless of the variety of English and everyone should interpret that transcription according to their own dialect. Thus, a person from South East England will read it as something like [l??s ?p??k s?m ?ɡ???ps f? ?b?t??i], a Scot as [??ts ?p??k s?m ?ɡ?eps f? ?b?te], whereas someone from New Zealand will interpret that transcription as [??ts ?p??k s?m ?ɡ???ps f? ?b??i]. Because we are transcribing diaphonemes rather than phones (actual sounds), it is irrelevant that, for example, the vowel in let's as pronounced by someone from New Zealand overlaps with how people with England and Scotland typically pronounce the first vowel in pick, or that the Scottish realization of /r/ after /ɡ/ overlaps with the New Zealand realization of /t/ between vowels. In other words, the symbol ??? does not stand specifically for the open-mid front unrounded vowel in our system but any vowel that can be identified as the vowel in let's, depending on the accent. This is also why we use the simple symbol ?r? for the second sound in grapes.
Other words may have different vowels depending on the speaker.
For more extensive information on dialect variations, you may wish to see the IPA chart for English dialects.
Note that place names are not generally exempted from being transcribed in this abstracted system, so rules such as the above must be applied in order to recover the local pronunciation. Examples include place names in much of England ending -?ford, which although locally pronounced [-f?d] are transcribed /-f?rd/. This is best practice for editors. However, readers should be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if /-f?d/ is encountered for such a place name, it should not be interpreted as a claim that the /r/ would be absent even in a rhotic dialect.
Other transcriptions
If you feel it is necessary to add a pronunciation respelling using another convention, then please use the conventions of Wikipedia's pronunciation respelling key.
- To compare the following IPA symbols with non-IPA American dictionary conventions that may be more familiar, see Pronunciation respelling for English, which lists the pronunciation guides of fourteen English dictionaries published in the United States.
- To compare the following IPA symbols with other IPA conventions that may be more familiar, see Help:IPA/Conventions for English, which lists the conventions of eight English dictionaries published in Britain, Australia, and the United States.
See also
- If your browser does not display IPA symbols, you probably need to install a font that includes the IPA (for good, free IPA fonts, see the download links in the articles for Gentium, and the more complete Charis SIL; for a monospaced font, see the complete Everson Mono).
- For a guide to adding IPA characters to Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters.
- Help:IPA/Conventions for English
- Help:Pronunciation respelling key
- Pronunciation respelling for English
- Category:Pages with English IPA (189)
Notes
- ^ This rule is generally employed in the pronunciation guide of our articles, even for local terms such as place names. However, be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if a pronunciation of an English town ending in ?ford reads /?f?d/, it doesn't mean that the /r/ would be absent in a rhotic dialect.
- ^ For example, if you have the marry–merry merger, you probably only merge /?/ and /?/ before /r/. You would still distinguish man and men.
- ^ a b In varieties with flapping, /t/ and sometimes also /d/ between a vowel and a weak or word-initial vowel may be pronounced with a voiced tap [?], making latter sound similar or identical to ladder. Some dictionaries transcribe /t/ subject to this process as ?d? or ?t??, but they are not distinguished in this transcription system. In those varieties, the sequence /nt/ in the same environment may also be realized as a nasalized tap [??], making winter sound similar or identical to winner. This is also not distinguished in this system.
- ^ a b c d e f g In dialects with yod dropping, /j/ in /ju?/, /ju/, or /j??r/ is not pronounced after coronal consonants (/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /θ/, and /l/) in the same syllable, so that dew /dju?/ is pronounced the same as do /du?/. In dialects with yod coalescence, /tj/ and /dj/ mostly merge with /t?/ and /d?/, so that the first syllable in Tuesday is pronounced the same as choose. In some dialects /sj/ and /zj/ are also affected and frequently merge with /?/ and /?/. Where /j/ in /ju?/, /ju/, or /j??r/ following a coronal is still pronounced in yod-dropping accents, place a syllable break before it: menu /?m?n.ju?/.
- ^ The phoneme /hw/ is not distinguished from /w/ in the many dialects with the wine–whine merger, such as RP and most varieties of General American. For more information on this sound, see voiceless labialized velar approximant.
- ^ The IPA value of the letter ?j? may be counterintuitive to English speakers, but the spelling is found even in some common English words like hallelujah and fjord. Some dictionaries use ?y? instead, although it represents a close front rounded vowel in official IPA.
- ^ /l/ in the syllable coda, as in the words all, cold, or bottle, is pronounced as [o], [u], [w] or a similar sound in many dialects through L-vocalization.
- ^ In most varieties of English, /r/ is pronounced as an Voiced postalveolar approximant ????. Although the IPA symbol ?r? represents the alveolar trill, ?r? is widely used instead of ???? in broad transcriptions of English for convenience.
- ^ A number of English words, such as genre and garage, may be pronounced with either /?/ or /d?/.
- ^ In non-rhotic accents like RP, /r/ is not pronounced unless followed by a vowel.
- ^ In dialects with the father–bother merger such as General American, /?/ is not distinguished from /ɑ?/.
- ^ In most of the United States, /?r/ is merged with /??r/, except for a handful of words such as borrow, tomorrow and sorry, which instead have /ɑ?r/. In some parts of the Southern and Northeastern US, it is always merged with /ɑ?r/. In Canada, it is always merged with /??r/.
- ^ Some British sources, such as the Oxford English Dictionary, use ?a? instead of /?/ to transcribe this vowel. This more closely reflects the actual vowel quality in contemporary Received Pronunciation.[a]
- ^ In North America, /?/ is often pronounced like a diphthong [e?~??] before nasal consonants and, in some particular regional dialects, other environments. See /?/ raising.
- ^ a b c Many North American accents have the Mary–marry–merry merger and therefore don't distinguish between the corresponding sounds /??r/, /?r/, and /?r/. Some speakers merge only two of the sounds (most typically /??r/ with one of the short vowels), and less than a fifth of speakers of American English make a full three-way distinction like in RP and similar accents.[b]
- ^ a b In much of North America, /a?/ or /a?/ may have a slightly different quality when it precedes a voiceless consonant, as in price or mouth, from that in ride/pie or loud/how, a phenomenon known as Canadian raising. Since this occurs in a predictable fashion, it is not distinguished in this transcription system.
- ^ a b c Some speakers pronounce higher, flower and coyer ("more coy") with two syllables, and hire, flour and coir with one. Most pronounce them the same. For the former group of words, make use of syllable breaks, as in /?ha?.?r/, /?fla?.?r/, /?k??.?r/, to differentiate from the latter. Before vowels, the distinction between /a??r, a??r, ???r/ and /a?r, a?r, ??r/ is not always clear; choose the former if the second element may be omitted (as in [?da?ri] diary).
- ^ /?/ is transcribed with ?e? in many dictionaries. However, /e?/ is also sometimes transcribed with ?e?, especially in North American literature, so ??? is chosen here.
- ^ a b c /??/, /??/, or /??/ may be separated from /r/ only when a stress follows it. The IPAc-en template supports /???r/, /???r/, /???r/, /???r/, /???r/, and /???r/ as distinct diaphonemes for such occasions.
- ^ a b c d ??? and ?o?? represent strong vowels in some words and weak vowels in others. It will not always be clear which they are.[c][d]
- ^ a b Words like idea, real, and theatre may be pronounced with /??/ and cruel with /??/ in non-rhotic accents such as Received Pronunciation, and some dictionaries transcribe them with /??, ??/,[e] but since they are not pronounced with /r/ in rhotic accents, they are transcribed with /i??, u??/, not with /??, ??/, in this transcription system.
- ^ /o?/ is often transcribed with ????, particularly in British literature, based on its modern realization in Received Pronunciation. It is also transcribed with ?o?, particularly in North American literature.
- ^ a b Some accents, such as Scottish English, many forms of Irish English and some conservative American accents, make a distinction between the vowels in horse and hoarse (i.e. they lack the horse–hoarse merger). Since most modern dictionaries do not differentiate between them, neither does this key.
- ^ /??/ is not distinguished from /?/ in dialects with the cot–caught merger such as Scottish English, Canadian English and many varieties of General American. In North America, the two vowels most often fall together with /ɑ?/.
- ^ /??r/ is not distinguished from /??r/ in dialects with the cure–force merger, including many younger speakers. In England, the merger may not be fully consistent and may only apply to more common words. In conservative RP and Northern England English /??r/ is much more commonly preserved than in modern RP and Southern England English. In Australia and New Zealand, /??r/ does not exist as a separate phoneme and is replaced either by the sequence /u??r/ (/u?r/ before vowels within the same word, save for some compounds) or the monophthong /??r/.
- ^ Some, particularly North American, dictionaries notate /?/ with the same symbol as /?/, which is found only in unstressed syllables, and distinguish it from /?/ by marking the syllable as stressed. Also note that although ???, the IPA symbol for the open-mid back vowel, is used, the typical modern pronunciation is rather close to the near-open central vowel [?] in some dialects, including Received Pronunciation.
- ^ /?/ is not used in the dialects of the northern half of England and some parts of Ireland and Wales. These words would take the /?/ vowel: there is no foot–strut split.
- ^ In Received Pronunciation, /??r/ is pronounced as a lengthened schwa, [??]. In General American, it is phonetically identical to /?r/. Some dictionaries therefore use ???, ?r? instead of the conventional notations ???, ?r?. When ??r? is used for /??r/, it is distinguished from /?r/ by marking the syllable as stressed.
- ^ /?r/ is not distinguished from /??r/ in dialects with the hurry–furry merger such as General American.
- ^ a b In a number of contexts, /?/ in /?r/, /?l/, /?n/, or /?m/ is often omitted, resulting in a syllable with no vowel. Some dictionaries show /?/ in those contexts in parentheses, superscript, or italics to indicate this possibility, or simply omit /?/. When followed by a weak vowel, the syllable may be lost altogether, with the consonant moving to the next syllable, so that doubling /?d?b.?l.??/ may alternatively be pronounced as [?d?b.l??], and Edinburgh /??d.?n.b?r.?/ as [??d.?n.br?].[i] When not followed by a vowel, /?r/ merges with /?/ in non-rhotic accents.
- ^ ??? represents a strong vowel in some contexts and a weak vowel in others. In accents with the weak vowel merger such as most Australian and American accents, weak /?/ is not distinguished from schwa /?/, making rabbit and abbot rhyme and Lenin and Lennon homophonous. (Pairs like roses and Rosa's are kept distinct in American accents because of the difference in morphological structure,[f] but may be homophonous in Australian.[g]) In these accents, weak /?l, ?n, ?m/ merge with /?l, ?n, ?m/, so that the second vowel in Latin may be lost and cabinet may be disyllabic (see the previous note).
- ^ a b /o?/ and /u/ in unstressed, prevocalic positions are transcribed as /?w/ by Merriam-Webster, but no other dictionary uniformly follows this practice.[h] Hence the difference between /?w/ in Merriam-Webster and /o?/ or /u/ in another source is most likely one in notation, not in pronunciation, so /?w/ in such cases may be better replaced with /o?/ or /u/ accordingly, to minimize confusion: /?s?t???we???n/ → /?s?t?u?e???n/, /?f?l?w?r/ → /?f?lo??r/.
- ^ a b ?i? represents variation between /i?/ and /?/ in unstressed prevocalic or morpheme-final positions. It is realized with a quality closer to /i?/ in accents with happy tensing, such as Australian English, General American, and modern RP, and to /?/ in others. ?u? likewise represents variation between /u?/ and /?/ in unstressed prevocalic positions.
- ^ The sequence ?i?? may be pronounced as two syllables, [i.?] or [?.?], or as one, [j?] or [???]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, the NEAR vowel (/??r/).[e] This transcription system uses ?i??, not ?i.??, ?j??, ????, etc., to cover all these possibilities.
- ^ The sequence ?u?? may be pronounced as two syllables, [u.?] or [?.?], or as one, [w?] or [???]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, the CURE vowel (/??r/).[e] This transcription system uses ?u??, not ?u.??, ?w??, ????, etc., to cover all these possibilities.
- ^ In most dialects, /x/ can also be replaced by /k/ in most words, including loch. It is also replaced with /h/ in some words, particularly of Yiddish origin, such as Chanukah.
- ^ a b /??, ??/ are only found in French loanwords and often replaced by another vowel and a nasal consonant: bon vivant /?b?n vi??v?nt/, ensemble /?n?s?mb?l/, etc.[j]
- ^ /??/ is only found in loanwords and represents a situation where such an r-less vowel is used only in British or Southern Hemisphere accents, and therefore a transcription that includes it must always be prefaced with a label indicating the variety of English. If r-ful NURSE is used in GA too, even if spelled without ?r?, as in Goethe and hors d'oeuvre, use /??r/. /??/ is also not the same as ??? seen in some American dictionaries. ??? in those dictionaries is merely a notational convention and does not correspond to any vowel in any accent of English, so a transcription containing ??? cannot be converted to one that uses this key.
- ^ The IPA stress marks, ??? and ???, come before the syllable that has the stress, in contrast to stress marking in pronunciation keys of some dictionaries published in the United States.
- ^ Scholars disagree on how to analyze degrees of stress in English. A particular unstressed syllable with phonetic prominence or a full (unreduced) vowel is analyzed by some scholars as having secondary stress. For simplicity, we follow British rather than American English conventions, only marking secondary stress when it occurs before, not after, the primary stress.
- ^ Syllable divisions are not usually marked, but the IPA dot ?.? may be used when it is wished to make explicit where a division between syllables is (or may be) made.
References
- ^ "British English Pronunciations". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 4 September 2023.
- ^ Vaux, Bert; Golder, Scott (2003). "How do you pronounce Mary/merry/marry?". Harvard Dialect Survey. Harvard University Linguistics Department.
- ^ Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 91–2.
- ^ Wells, John (25 March 2011). "strong and weak". John Wells's phonetic blog.
- ^ a b c Wells (1982), p. 240.
- ^ Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 94–5.
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 601.
- ^ Windsor Lewis, Jack (10 April 2009). "The Elephant in the Room". PhonetiBlog. Archived from the original on 6 March 2025.
- ^ Wells (2008), pp. 173, 799.
- ^ Jones (2011).
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 473–6, 493, 499.
- ^ Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 58.
- ^ Corrigan (2010), pp. 33–5.
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 361, 372.
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 605–7.
- ^ Bauer et al. (2007), pp. 98–9.
- ^ Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 351–3, 363–4.
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 400, 439.
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 380–1.
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 612–3.
- ^ a b Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 56.
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 304, 310–1.
- ^ Wells (1982), pp. 304, 312–3.
- ^ Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 57.
Bibliography
- Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007). "New Zealand English". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 37 (1): 97–102. doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830. S2CID 145584883.
- Corrigan, Karen P. (2010). Irish English, volume 1 – Northern Ireland. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3429-3.
- Flemming, Edward; Johnson, Stephanie (2007). "Rosa's roses: reduced vowels in American English" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 37 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1017/S0025100306002817. S2CID 145535175.
- Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6.
- Stuart-Smith, Jane (2004). "Scottish English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Vol. 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 47–67. doi:10.1515/9783110175325.1.47. ISBN 3-11-017532-0.
- Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278), Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611766. ISBN 0-52129719-2, 0-52128540-2, 0-52128541-0.
- Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
External links
- Getting JAWS 6.1 to recognize "exotic" Unicode symbols[dead link] – for help on getting the screen reader JAWS to read IPA symbols
- IPA Reader – web-based IPA synthesizer using Amazon Polly
- Phoneme Synthesis – web-based IPA synthesizer using eSpeak